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10 - Storm Processes and Salt Marsh Dynamics
- from Part II - Marsh Dynamics
- Edited by Duncan M. FitzGerald, Boston University, Zoe J. Hughes, Boston University
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- Salt Marshes
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- 19 June 2021
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- 22 April 2021, pp 257-277
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Summary
Marshes have long been considered useful for their ecosystem service of coastal protection. Their roles in protection from storms and floods are seen as necessary and important to many coastal communities (Barbier et al. 2011; Costanza et al. 1997; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005; Morgan et al. 2009). Understanding the impacts that storms have on coastal ecosystems and adjacent coastal communities is imperative to increasing coastal resilience in the face of future increases in coastal flooding and associated damage (Mendelsohn et al. 2012; Pielke et al. 2008). Salt marshes have been lauded as buffers to storm surges, wind-generated waves, and elevated water levels (French 2006; Möller 2012). The ecological restoration economy, which includes salt marsh restoration, in the USA alone generates $9.5 billion in annual economic output and employs an estimated 126,000 workers (BenDor et al. 2015). After Hurricane Sandy, the US Fish and Wildlife Service spent more than $40 million on salt marsh restoration projects in response to this single event, including $11 million toward restoring a series of salt marshes along Long Island.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Contributors
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- By R. J. Aitken, Gokhan Akkoyunlu, David F. Albertini, Christiani A. Amorim, R. A. Anderson, Baris Ata, Pedro N. Barri, Mohamed A. Bedaiwy, Rosita Bergström, Veronica Bianchi, Montserrat Boada, Paolo Boffetta, Andrea Borini, Karina Braga Ribeiro, Peter R. Brinsden, Ralph L. Brinster, Jason G. Bromer, A. L. Caplan, Chian Ri-Cheng, Ina N. Cholst, A. Ciobanu, Megan Clowse, Ana Cobo, Susannah C. Copland, John K. Critser, B. J. Curry, Giuseppe Del Priore, M. De Vos, Marie-Madeleine Dolmans, Javier Domingo, Jacques Donnez, David H. Edgar, Nanette R. Elster, Carol Fabian, Gregory M. Fahy, Tommaso Falcone, Debra Friedman, Jill P. Ginsberg, Debra A. Gook, Julie R. Gralow, Elizabeth Grill, Sebastien Gouy, Xu Han, Lisa M. Harlan-Williams, Outi Hovatta MD, Wayland Hsiao, Zhongwei Huang, E. Isachenko, V. Isachenko, Roy A. Jensen, I. I. Katkov, S. Samuel Kim, Jennifer Klemp, Larissa A. Korde, R. Kreienberg, Srinivasan Krishnamurthy, Juergen Liebermann, J. Ryan Martin, Elizabeth A. McGee, Marie McLaughlin, P. Mathevet, D. Meirow, Philippe Morice, Steven F. Mullen, Kutluk Oktay, Pasquale Patrizio, Antonio Pellicer, Pinki K. Prasad, Kenny A. Rodriguez-Wallberg, Erin Rohde, Allison B. Rosen, Zev Rosenwaks, María Sánchez, R. Sanchez, Glenn L. Schattman, Peter N. Schlegel, Einat Shalom-Paz, Lonnie D. Shea, Gunapala Shetty, Jill Simmons, Carrie A. Smith, J. Smitz, Miquel Solé, Jean Squifflet, Shane R. Stecklein, Jerome F. Strauss, David J. Tagler, Seang Lin Tan, Evelyn E. Telfer, Sreedhar Thirumala, Michael J. Tucker, Catherine Uzan, Anne Van Langendonckt, Anna Veiga, W. H. B. Wallace, Wenjia Wang, Brent Waters, Dagan Wells, Teresa K. Woodruff, Erik Woods, Christine Wyns
- Edited by Jacques Donnez, Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, S. Samuel Kim, University of Kansas
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- Principles and Practice of Fertility Preservation
- Published online:
- 04 February 2011
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- 03 February 2011, pp x-xiv
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A computerized magnetic resonance imaging study of corpus callosum morphology in schizophrenia
- P. W. R. Woodruff, G. D. Pearlson, M. J. Geer, P. E. Barta, H. D. Chilcoat
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- Psychological Medicine / Volume 23 / Issue 1 / February 1993
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 09 July 2009, pp. 45-56
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The hypothesis tested was that, in schizophrenia, corpus callosum size would be reduced, particularly in the region responsible for communication between both temporal lobes. This is supported by knowledge of: (a) anatomical homotopicity and functional specialization of fibres within the corpus callosum; (b) evidence linking structural and functional deficits of the corpus callosum and left temporal lobe with schizophrenia; and (c) that temporal lobe neuronal fibres pass through the middle region of the corpus callosum. Brain area and corpus callosum areas, widths and length were measured on mid-sagittal MRI scans using a computer outlining method. Scans from 30 schizophrenics and 44 normal subjects were compared. Mid-sagittal brain area, corpus callosum area, length and anterior widths were reduced in the schizophrenic group compared with controls. A significant area difference between schizophrenics and controls was seen in the mid-corpus callosum which communicates between the temporal lobes, including the superior temporal gyri. In schizophrenics, corpus callosum area reduction was not accounted for by brain area shrinkage alone. Differences between the two groups were accounted for by comparisons between males only. These findings support the hypothesis and the possibility that localized abnormalities of bilaterally connected brain regions might have secondary effects on their homotopically distributed fibres within the corpus callosum.
Letter to the Editor: A reply to Dr Corcoran
- K.-H. LEE, D. T. TSOI, P. W. R. WOODRUFF
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- Journal:
- Psychological Medicine / Volume 39 / Issue 2 / February 2009
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 October 2008, pp. 348-352
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Humour experience in schizophrenia: relationship with executive dysfunction and psychosocial impairment
- D. T.-Y. Tsoi, K.-H. Lee, K. A. Gee, K. L. Holden, R. W. Parks, P. W. R. Woodruff
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- Journal:
- Psychological Medicine / Volume 38 / Issue 6 / June 2008
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 04 January 2008, pp. 801-810
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Background
The ability to appreciate humour is essential to successful human interactions. In this study, we hypothesized that individuals with schizophrenia would have diminished ability to recognize and appreciate humour. The relationship between humour experience and clinical symptoms, cognitive and social functioning was examined.
MethodThirty patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia were compared with 30 age-, gender-, IQ- and ethnicity-matched healthy controls. Humour recognition was measured by identification of humorous moments in four silent slapstick comedy film clips and calculated as d-prime (d′) according to signal detection theory. Humour appreciation was measured by self-report mood state and funniness ratings. Patients were assessed for clinical symptoms, theory of mind ability, executive function [using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)] and social functioning [using the Life Skills Profile (LSP)].
ResultsPatient and control groups did not differ in the funniness ratings they attributed to the video clips. Patients with schizophrenia had a lower d′ (humour) compared to the controls, after controlling for (1) the performance of a baseline recognition task with a non-humorous video clip and (2) severity of depressive symptoms. In patients, d′ (humour) had significant negative correlation with delusion and depression scores, the perseverative error score of the WCST and the total scores of the LSP.
ConclusionsCompared with controls, patients with schizophrenia were less sensitive at detecting humour but similarly able to appreciate humour. The degree of humour recognition difficulty may be associated with the extent of executive dysfunction and thus contribute to the psychosocial impairment in patients with schizophrenia.
Social cognition, brain networks and schizophrenia
- K.-H. LEE, T. F. D. FARROW, S. A. SPENCE, P. W. R. WOODRUFF
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- Psychological Medicine / Volume 34 / Issue 3 / April 2004
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 30 June 2004, pp. 391-400
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Background. A better understanding of the neural basis of social cognition including mindreading (or theory of mind) and empathy might help to explain some deficits in social functioning in people with schizophrenia. Our aim was to review neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies on social cognition, as they may shed light on the neural mechanisms of social cognition and its dysfunction in patients with schizophrenia.
Method. A selective literature review was undertaken.
Results. Neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies suggest convergence upon specific networks for mindreading and empathy (the temporal cortex, amygdala and the prefrontal cortex). The frontal lobe is likely to play a central role in enabling social cognition, but mindreading and empathic abilities may require relatively different weighting of subcomponents within the same frontal-temporal social cognition network.
Conclusions. Disturbances in social cognition may represent an abnormal interaction between frontal lobe and its functionally connected cortical and subcortical areas. Future studies should seek to explore the heterogeneity of social dysfunction within schizophrenia.
Reduced levels of GABA-benzodiazepine receptor in alcohol dependency in the absence of grey matter atrophy
- Anne R. Lingford-Hughes, P. Acton, S. Gacinovic, J. Suckling, G. F. Busatto, S. J. A. Boddington, E. Bullmore, P. W. Woodruff, D. C. Costa, L. S. Pilowsky, P. J. Ell, E. J. Marshall, R. W. Kerwin
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- Journal:
- The British Journal of Psychiatry / Volume 173 / Issue 2 / August 1998
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 03 January 2018, pp. 116-122
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- August 1998
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Background
We tested the hypothesis that reduced levels of the GABA-benzodiazepine receptor occur in alcohol dependency using single photon emission tomography (SPET) and the specific GABA-benzodiazepine ligand, 123l-iomazenil.
MethodNeurologically and cognitively unimpaired abstinent alcohol-dependent (n=12) and non-alcohol-dependent male subjects (n=14) underwent a 123l–iomazenil SPET scan. SPET and magnetic resonance images were co-registered and voxel-based statistical tests performed. Subjects' clinical and alcohol history were obtained with standard questionnaires. The relationships between clinical and alcohol variables and the regional level of GABA-benzodiazepine receptors were investigated using multiple regression analysis.
ResultsAbstinent alcohol-dependent subjects had decreased levels of GABA-benzodiazepine receptor compared with non-alcohol-dependent subjects within the frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, including regions in which grey matter atrophy was absent.
ConclusionsAlcohol dependency is associated with reduced GABA-benzodiazepine receptor levels in the absence of grey matter atrophy in some cortical regions, such as within the parietal lobe. Regional variability of reduction in GABA-benzodiazepine receptors demonstrates that alcohol does not have a global, toxic effect on the brain.
References
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 563-575
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2 - Surface crystallography and diffraction
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 15-104
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Summary
Surface symmetry
The classification and description of symmetry properties and structures of bulk (three-dimensional) crystalline materials require a reasonable understanding of crystallography; notably of the restricted number of types of translational symmetry which crystals can possess (characterised by their associated unit cell which must be one of the 14 Bravais lattices) and the finite number of point and space groups which can define the additional symmetry properties of all possible crystals. Many properties of solids are intimately related to the special symmetry properties of these materials. While a solid surface is intrinsically an imperfection of a crystalline solid, destroying the three-dimensional periodicity of the structure, this region of the solid retains two-dimensional periodicity (parallel to the surface) and this periodicity is an important factor in determining some of the properties of the surface. In particular, it plays a dominant role in allowing electron, X-ray and atom diffraction techniques to provide information on the structure of the surface, as well as strongly influencing the electronic properties of the surface. For these reasons a proper understanding of surface crystallography is important for a general understanding of many surface effects and is critical for an understanding of the electron diffraction techniques, Low Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED) and Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED), of surface X-ray diffraction and of He atom diffraction (see chapter 8).
3 - Electron spectroscopies
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 105-265
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Summary
General considerations
Introduction
A large number of surface techniques involve the detection of electrons in the energy range 5–2000 eV which are emitted or scattered from the surface. A number of features are common to most of these techniques. In particular, all derive their surface sensitivity from the fact that electrons in this energy range have a high probability of inelastic scattering, so that if electrons are detected at an energy which is known to be unchanged by passage through the surface region of the solid, we know that they have passed only through a very thin surface layer; i.e. the techniques are surface specific. Secondly, because this surface specificity derives from a knowledge of the energy of the electrons, some form of electron energy analyser is required by most of these techniques. This piece of instrumentation is therefore common to many techniques.
Of course, no classification scheme is perfect. Electron energy analysers can also be used to determine the energy spectrum of other charged particles, notably ions as in ion scattering spectroscopy. Inverse Photoemission Spectroscopy (IPES) and Appearance Potential Spectroscopy (APS) are not strictly electron spectroscopies as ultraviolet and X-ray photons are detected, but IPES is very closely related to photoemission in the basic physics, and both share with electron spectroscopies a surface specificity which is governed by electron inelastic scattering.
Contents
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp vii-xii
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Abbreviations
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp xvii-xviii
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4 - Incident ion techniques
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 266-355
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Summary
Introduction
At low incident kinetic energies (at most a few tens of eV) the interaction of incident ions with a surface is dominated by charge transfer to neutralise the ion. This produces electron emission characteristic of the electronic structure of the surface, and therefore forms a valence level spectroscopy known as INS. This will be discussed in detail in the next section.
By contrast, a number of techniques in surface studies utilise the kinetic energy transfer of more energetic incident ions to provide information on the surface. Most of these techniques use incident inert gas ions He+, Ne+ or Ar+ in the energy range from a few hundred eV to a few keV although some use is also made of similarly low energy alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+) and oxygen ions, and there are also techniques based on the use of far more energetic (up to 1 MeV or more) incident ions of He+ and H+. While these incident ions may also suffer charge transfer at the surface, and can produce electronic excitations both in the form of core level ionisation and plasmon excitation, most techniques concentrate on the kinetic energy transfers between the incident ion and the atoms which comprise the surface.
5 - Desorption spectroscopies
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 356-409
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Summary
Introduction
Many surface techniques involve some damage, or destruction of the surface being investigated but, with the exception of the SIMS technique described in chapter 4, this is an incidental side-effect rather than a primary feature of the technique. In the case of SIMS, the destruction of the surface is by the rather brutal method of sputtering, and the analysis of the sputtered, charged fragments is carried out primarily with the object of determining the surface composition. In this chapter, we discuss two very different types of desorption spectroscopy, in which adsorbed species specifically, are desorbed from the surface in an attempt to learn about the nature of the adsorbate—substrate bonding. Information on surface composition (or more often surface coverage of an adsorbed species) may also be obtained, but this is usually incidental.
The two general methods of desorption are by thermal and by electronic stimulation. Any species adsorbed on a suface must be bound to the surface with some specific amount of energy and will desorb at a rate determined by a Boltzmann factor. Heating the surface will increase this desorption rate, and the desorbing species may be detected in the gas phase by conventional mass spectrometers. Evidently, a study of the temperature dependence of the desorption rate can lead to information on the binding energy states of the adsorbate (or, more strictly, on the desorption energies).
Index
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 576-586
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7 - Work function techniques
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
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- 26 January 2010
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- 03 March 1994, pp 461-484
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Summary
Introduction
The measurement of work functions or, more precisely, work function changes (surface potentials) has been widely used in the study of adsorption processes on metal surfaces. The technique has been used both on its own and in conjunction with other techniques such as LEED, infrared spectroscopy or flash desorption to elucidate the mechanism of surface reactions.
The measurement of the work function change or surface potential is useful in that it provides a relatively simple method of monitoring the state of the surface. Any adsorption on the surface will, in general, produce a change in the work function of the surface as will any further change in the state of the adsorbate and/or adsorbent. The method is very sensitive, since adsorption of a monolayer on a surface produces surface potentials which are usually in the range 0.1–1.5 V and, since surface potentials can be measured to within ±0.001 V, very small amounts of adsorption can be measured in a way which causes little or no disturbance to the surface.
A number of techniques are available for measuring surface potentials. In principle, any method which will measure work functions or Contact Potential Difference (CPD) may be used for measuring surface potentials, although some techniques may interfere with the adsorption process to a limited extent.
9 - Vibrational spectroscopies
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
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- Book:
- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
- Published online:
- 26 January 2010
- Print publication:
- 03 March 1994, pp 532-562
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Summary
Introduction
The surface vibrations of adsorbates on crystal surfaces may be studied by Infrared Reflection—Absorption Spectroscopy (IRAS), Raman spectroscopy, High Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (HREELS) or molecular beam scattering. The last named is the subject of a separate chapter and will not be discussed further here. In all of these techniques, with the exception of molecular beam scattering, the inelastic process results from the same physical entity, the vibrating surface dipole, and to a certain extent similar selection rules apply for IRAS and HREELS; the selection rules for Raman activity complement those of IRAS.
One would expect that these techniques would yield much the same sort of structural information about adsorbed species on metal surfaces. This is generally true, though direct comparisons are not always possible since IRAS and Raman spectroscopy may be used at quite high pressures, akin to those encountered in catalytic systems, while HREELS may not. Balanced against this apparent disadvantage for HREELS is the fact that it can readily scan 1 eV, the whole infrared range, in one experiment. Unfortunately, until recently, the resolution obtained for HREELS did not exceed ∼ 5 meV; one must contrast this with the resolution attainable with IRAS, which is typically at least 0.05 meV.
1 - Introduction
- D. P. Woodruff, University of Warwick, T. A. Delchar, University of Warwick
-
- Book:
- Modern Techniques of Surface Science
- Published online:
- 26 January 2010
- Print publication:
- 03 March 1994, pp 1-14
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- Export citation
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Summary
Why surfaces?
The growth in the study of solid surfaces and in the number of techniques available for their study has been enormous since the early 1960s. At least one reason for this is the growing awareness of the importance of understanding surface properties and indeed the fact that work on surfaces has had an impact on this understanding and on specific applications in the ‘real world’. At a fundamental level surfaces are of great interest because they represent a rather special kind of defect in the solid state. Much of our understanding of solids is based on the fact that they are, in essence, perfectly periodic in three dimensions; the electronic and vibrational properties can be described in great detail using methods which rely on this periodicity. The introduction of a surface breaks this periodicity in one direction and can lead to structural changes as well as the introduction of localised electronic and vibrational states. Gaining a proper understanding of these effects is not only of academic interest, as there is growing interest in the properties of low-dimensional structures in semiconductor devices, and a free surface can represent the simplest case of such a structure.
Perhaps the most widely quoted motivation for modern surface studies is the goal of understanding heterogeneous catalysis.
Modern Techniques of Surface Science
- 2nd edition
- D. P. Woodruff, T. A. Delchar
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- Published online:
- 26 January 2010
- Print publication:
- 03 March 1994
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This is a fully revised and expanded edition of a very successful and widely used book. It describes the physical basis of all the principal, and most of the more specialised, techniques currently employed in the study of well-characterised solid surfaces. The coverage of each technique, illustrated with selected examples, is underpinned by discussion of the relevant physical principles, and the complementary aspects of the various methods are also described. Throughout, the emphasis is on understanding the concepts involved, rather than on an exhaustive review of applications. The book will be of great use to final year undergraduate and postgraduate students in physics, chemistry and materials science. It will also be valuable to established researchers in any area of surface science concerned with the acquisition and analysis of experimental data.